Hmong American Bible
Introduction
Hmong American Bible is born out of a great need for expository preaching, discipleship training, and theological development among the growing Hmong churches in the United States and Asia. As lawyers representing new immigrants would appreciate good translation in and out of the courtroom, so leaders of God’s new people appreciate a good translation in and out of the sanctuary. When a translation mistake occurs in the court, a person could suffer an immeasurable harm to his property or his life. The Lord Jesus sternly warned his disciples that if they cause a little child of the kingdom to fall, “It would be better for them to have a large millstone hung around their neck and to be drowned in the depths of the sea” (Mat 18:6). Hmong pastors and lay leaders, here and abroad, know this burden and have the same need.
In this translation, we have tried to translate the Bible into good and proper Hmong, maintaining a close translation of the meaning in the original languages. We do this in several ways, some of which are new.
Hmong writing is a new development to translate the Bible in the last century. It is merely 60 years old. For that reason, the writing is still unsettled. No writing convention has been defined or agreed upon. Yet, in order to translate Hebrew and Greek into Hmong, one is forced to think about new concepts and terminologies; verb tenses, moods, and voices; adjectives and adverbs; participles and clauses; articles, prepositions, idioms, emphases; numbers, weights and measures; and so on.
Where Hmong words appear to have different forms, we utilize the textual critical method: the difficult pronunciation is the original word. For examples, there are two words for relocation: “rhais chaw” and “tshais chaw.” It is obvious that “rhais chaw” is the more difficult to pronounce and so it is the original. Again, the Blue Hmong have two words for the earth: “ndlajteb” and “nplajteb.” Ndlajteb is the more difficult one and it is reckoned to be the original.
Verbs can be readily identified but the issue is that Hmong speakers are not observant of tenses because they can rely on other time indicators. Other translators have done exactly that, but we want to make sure we stay close to the original Greek and Hebrew text. Therefore, we have to modify, and even to invent new words, to achieve that goal. Some examples are set forth below.
a. Present tense remains the same: Kuv mus tsev (I go home).
b. Future tense will always include the helping verb “yuav” to the main verb. Thus, Kuv yuav mus tsev (I will go home). Stand alone, this helping verb yuav means to buy, to purchase, or to take to oneself.
c. Past tense is identified with the helping verb “tau.” For example, Kuv tau mus tsev (I went home). This helping verb tau by itself means to get, to receive, to have possession.
d. Perfect tense is known by its signature “twb” (already) in front of the verb. Sometimes, we add “lawm” (gone) to it as well. So, Kuv twb mus tsev [lawm] (I have gone home). Note, when twb appears as a verb, it means to place something next to another.e. Pluperfect tense is accomplished by combining the perfect and past tenses together. For example, Kuv twb tau mus tsev [lawm] (I had gone home).
f. Passive voice is achieved by adding the helping verb “raug” to the main verb. For example, Nws raug ntaus (He is beaten). Nws yov raug ntaus (He might be beaten). Nws yuav raug ntaus (He will be beaten). Nws tau raug ntaus (He was beaten). Peculiar in Hmong passive voice, the actor can be insert right in between the verb: Nws raug tubsab ntaus (He is beaten by thieves), and nws raug ntaj tuag (He is killed by a sword). Now, this helping verb raug means to cause harm or damage.
g. Consequential voice is somewhat unique in Hmong, and it is identified by the word “mag.” Tus uas ua txhaum yuav mag txim (He who sins will be found guilty).
h. Causative voice is similar to the Hebrew’s Hip’el and hop’al stems. Kuv muab koj tsa ua vajntxwv (I cause to appoint you to be king). The helping verb here is muab, which means to give, to bestow, to grant.
i. Middle and reflexive voice is constructed like English by adding tuskheej (the self) into the verb: Kuv tuskheej xav ntseeg (I myself want to believe).
j. Moods are of four kinds: indicative, imperative, jussive (cohortative) and subjunctive. All the above discussions (from a-g) appertain to the indicative mood. For the imperative and jussive moods, other translators appear to combine these as one i.e. cia li mus (go), but we believe they should be distinguished. Thus, we follow the English imperative form: Mus cuag Falaus (Go to Pharaoh). As for the jussive or cohortative mood, we add the helping verb “cia” (to let, to put it away) to the main verb: Cia peb ua qhov no (Let us do this). To construct the subjunctive mood, we simply add “yov” to the verb: Kuv yov mus tsev (I should go home). We also use this “yov” wherever we construct “would, could, should, might, or maybe.
k. The verb to be is very complex in Hmong as in other languages. In complementary sentences, Hmong simply omits it, like Greek and Hebrew. For example, lub teeb liab (the light/lamp red). The subjugated form is different from the infinitive form. For example: Kuv yog xibfwb (I am [a] teacher), but kuv kawm mus ua xibfwb (I study to be [a] teacher). This infinitive form shares the same pronunciation (Hmong is tonal in character) and spelling as the verb to do (mus ua). The subjugated forms change with location, time, and existence. As to location: Kuv nyob saum rooj (I am on the table), and it shares the same pronunciation and spelling with the verb to live/dwell (mus nyob). As to time, Kuv muaj 25 xyoos (I am 25 years old), and it shares the same pronunciation and spelling with the verb to have (mus muaj). Now, as to existence, muaj Hmoob coob hauv Axias (there are many Hmong in Asia), sharing pronunciation and spelling with the verb to have. This phenomenon can be clearly seen in John 1:1-2: 1 Thaum chivkeeb yeej muaj Txojlus, Txojlus yeej nyob nrog Vajtswv Ntuj, thiab Txojlus yeej yog Vajtswv Ntuj. 2 Nws yeej nyob nrog Vajtswv Ntuj thaum chivkeeb.
Adjectives are used differently in narrative and poetic forms. In narrative, the adjective follows the noun it modifies, but in poetry it precedes the noun. For example, Heev neeg muaj heev neeg tsim (The arrogant has his own arrogant oppressor), but when we describe an arrogant person, we say: Nws yog ib tug neeg heev (he is an arrogant person).
Adverbs, likewise, modify verbs. Hmong adjectives are colorful and descriptive of the action in the verbs. Let’s take a look at some of them. Tus ntoo vau kigkuag (the tree falls crushing with noises). Txhob saib neeg nrujnruj (don’t look at people by fixing your eyes on them.) There are two adverbs here: txhob and nrujnruj. In Hmong syntax, the two negative adverbs, tsis and txhob, come before the verb. Others usually come after. Note: neeg nrujnruj could also means greedy people. And it shows that the same word can either be an adverb or adjective, depending on the sense of the sentence. Now, both examples, the adverbs follow the verbs they modify, but the adverb is not necessarily taken a position immediately after the verb. In the second case, it comes after the object of the verb (neeg, people). Like its English counterpart, the adverb can stand alone in front of the sentence: Txawm li ntawd los, peb ntseeg qhov no (Even so, we believe this thing).
Participles are verbs which become noun, adjective, or adverb. Since they are essentially verbs, we must find how Hmong syntax changes them. Let’s look at some examples how Hmong change the verb haus (to drink).
a. Noun: Kev haus cawv ntxwg tsis yog yus kev phoojywg (Drinking liquor is not friendship). Using the noun article kev (path) before the verb has turned the verb into a noun. There are two other noun articles: txojkev and qhov (the particular path and the place or condition).
b. Adjective: Tus neeg haus cawv yuav hnovqab nws tsevneeg (the wine dinking man will forget his family). This is a good construction, but the adjective is not easy identifiable. To make it easier for identification, we can turn it into an adjective clause thus: Tus neeg uas haus cawv yuav hnovqab nws tsevneeg (the man who drinks wine will forget his family). Most of the adjective participles in this Bible will follow this construction.
c. Adverb: Nws tau digmuag los ntawm kev haus cawv liam ntsuav (He became blind due to drinking wickedly). As with the English counterpart, we can make a participle into adverb clause.
In any good translation, we must pay attend to the prepositions: at, on, in, into, over, under, to, toward, up, down, against, etc. Where Hmong words are not found, we necessarily invent or borrow. While prepositions are small words, they carry significant weights. Usually, each language has its own use. For English speakers, you are in the car, on the bus and on the plane. Hmong would say in (hauv) the car, in the bus, and in the plane. Hmong would translate, “Prostrate on the ground:” Qhaucev rau pem teb (lit. prostrate up the field). The real crux of preposition usage in each language derives from the fact that they are employed beyond and above their meanings. For example, the preposition “ntawm”means “at:” Kuv tuaj ntsib koj ntawm kiab (I come to meet you at the market), but “at” can become “of:” Cov ntshav ntawm tus menyuam yaj yuav ntxuav koj dawbhuv (the blood of the lamb will wash you holy). If we really want to say “the blood of the lamb” to eliminate any potential misunderstanding, we must change the construction of this sentence. And we could say instead: Tus menyuam yaj cov ntshav yuav ntxuav koj dawbhuv (the lamb’s blood will wash you holy).
Possession and relation. Hmong constructs possession by placing two nouns together, a pronoun and a noun, or adding the word tug to the noun and pronoun. For example: Kuv tub (my son), kuv tus tub (the son of mine), tus tub no yog kuv tug (this son is of mine). Note, the pronoun kuv (I, me, my, mine) is not changed. Its position and relation to the other noun prescribes meaning. Let me go to construct possession with two nouns. Tus nees txhais kotaw mob lawm (the horse’s foot is injured). Tus nees (noun, the horse) txhais kotaw (noun, foot) mob (adjective, hurt, sick) lawm (adverb, already). Where is the verb? It is missing (the verb to be is omitted).
As for invention, we observe that Hmong language have a way to do so. For example, when they refer to the forest, they combine two species: xyoobntoo (bamboo-tree). And for the extremities of the body, they combinetestaw (hand-foot). Accordingly, prior translators have invented a new word for glory, tshwjchim, by combining tshwj (set apart) and chim (wrath). Because hwjchim (hold in place + wrath) is the generic term for power, we feel compel to distinguish it from authority. To get a word for authority, we invent tswjchim, by combining tswj (rule over, control) and chim (wrath). As for borrowing, we decide on prioritizing (1) from another Hmong dialect (2) Mandarin Chinese (3) other Asiatic languages, and (4) biblical transliteration. For example, White Hmong doesn’t have a word for “forget,” but the Blue Hmong has one, hnovqab. So, we borrow hnovqab from Blue Hmong into White Hmong. And for directions, we use the Chinese terminologies: toobfab (east), xibfab (west), pejfab (north), and najfab (south). And, for the term mystery, we transliterate it “mixatawlis.”
In ancient times, Hmong must have had a zenith culture. That rich and glorious culture is transmitted through oral traditions. It is also said that Hmong used to have a writing but that was lost through persecution and migration. Whether one believes that glorious past, Hmong oral traditions preserve for us a wealth of vocabularies about that late culture. Some of these jewels are found in wedding and funeral chants, courtship songs, and legends. We want to set forth some of them here.
a. Masculine and feminine relics are present today. For example, the shaman is called txiv neeb regardless of sex. A woman shaman is not called niam neeb. A genus of animal embodied spirit is called poj ntxoog regardless of whether it is a male or female. A person with skill or trade is called tub txawg. An animal seed is called pojqaib niam npua regardless of male or female. A father and child are referred to as txivtub, even when the child is his daughter, as it is with a mother and child, niamtub.
b. Tswvkuj (kingdom) is almost unheard of among the Hmong of Laos, Thailand, and their cousins in western countries, but it remains a staple among the people in China and Vietnam. Tebchaws (field-place) is local geography and not a nation-state, lub kuj, although it is often used to mean that; therefore, we do not use it to denote a kingdom, tswvkuj. Fajtim or huabtais are synonyms for the emperor, who rules over other kings, and these titles stand opposed to the vajntxwv (king) or tub vajntxwv (prince). Nomtswv (official-lord) is a combined word in Hmong parlance everywhere and it broadly means a government official, elected or appointed. Tswv (lord) can be male or female, a title denoting sovereign rule or ownership. We know tubqhev is a reference to a male slave, but we are uncertain of tubmab. We speculate that tubmab is broadly a term for a laborer, who works side by side with the male slave, for the two terms are often cite together: tubmab tubqhev. These terms are opposed to a hired laborer, tubzog, who works for a daily wage. Tubtxib is the generic term for a person, male or female, in the service of a fajtim, vajntxwv, tswv, or nomtswv.
c. Yawm Saub is a Hmong legendary title for the creator. According to legends, he is eternal with a dwelling above the clouds or heaven, and he can foretell the future. Prominently though, he was the one who sent the first shaman, Sivyis, into the world. What we know is that shamanism is the worship of shamanistic spirits, who negotiate or go between humans and the spirits. When the Gospel was preached to the Hmong people, many Hmong associated Yawm Saub with the God of the Bible. But these spirits submit to Jesus. Shamans were the first to convert to Christianity. Former shamans have testified and continue to assert to this day that Yawm Saub is not the living God, but a perversion. We reject this name for the God of the Bible; it is unbiblical, legendary, and mythological. We renounce this name as Paul renounced Zeus (Acts 14:11-18).
As an animistic and shamanistic culture, Hmong don’t have a name for God. When the Gospel came to the Flower Hmong in China, the missionary and Hmong believers had to invent the name for God. They coined the term Ntujvaig (Heaven-king). The missionaries who preached to the Hmong in Laos in the middle of the last century, they and the Hmong Christians came up with Vajtswv Ntuj (King-lord of heaven) or in short Vajtswv (King-lord). While this name appears to be an attempt at the Lao word Phratiao (Brahmin-lord), we believe the Spirit of God had steer our people away from influence of Buddhism on Lao and Thai culture. Our Catholic brothers in Southeast Asia choose another name, Tswvntuj (heavenly Lord). In this Hmong American Bible, we will retain Vajtswv Ntuj or Vajtswv. As for the name YHWH, we will keep the traditional name of the Septuagint, tus TSWV (the LORD).
If you have studied Biblical Greek and Hebrew, you would immediately have many questions. We cannot describe everything here. This introduction is intended to provide some helpful information about the ways we approach our translation and to stimulate future discussion among Hmong pastors and leaders.
Please feel free to contact us at Hmong Bible Resource Center if you have any comments or concerns or ideas how to improve Bible translation.